Measurement And Assessment In Education,9780205376025

Measurement And Assessment In Education

by ; ;
Edition: 2nd
ISBN13: 9780205376025
ISBN10: 0205376029
Format: Paperback
Pub. Date: 2009-01-01
Publisher(s): Allyn & Bacon
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Summary

This text employs a pragmatic approach to the study of educational tests and measurement so that teachers will understand essential psychometric concepts and be able to apply them in the classroom. The principles that guide the development of this text are: (1) What essential knowledge and skills do classroom teachers need to conduct student assessments in a professional manner? (2) What does the research on educational assessment tell us? This focus has resulted in a uniquely approachable and technically accurate presentation of the material. While providing a slightly more technical presentation of measurement and assessment than more basic texts, this text is both approachable and comprehensive. The text includes a gentle introduction to the basic mathematics of measurement, and expands traditional coverage to include a thorough discussion of performance and portfolio assessments, a complete presentation of assessment accommodations for students with disabilities, and a practical discussion of professional best practices in educational measurement.

Table of Contents

Preface xiii
Introduction to Educational Assessment
1(30)
The Language of Assessment
2(7)
Tests, Measurement, and Assessment
3(1)
Types of Tests
4(4)
Types of Score Interpretations
8(1)
Assumptions of Educational Assessment
9(4)
Psychological and Educational Constructs Exist
9(1)
Psychological and Educational Constructs Can Be Measured
10(1)
Although We Can Measure Constructs, Our Measurement Is Not Perfect
10(1)
There Are Different Ways to Measure Any Given Construct
10(1)
All Assessment Procedures Have Strengths and Limitations
10(1)
Multiple Sources of Information Should Be Part of the Assessment Process
11(1)
Performance on Tests Can Be Generalized to Nontest Behaviors
11(1)
Assessment Can Provide Information That Helps Educators Make Better Educational Decisions
11(1)
Assessments Can Be Conducted in a Fair Manner
11(1)
Testing and Assessment Can Benefit Our Educational Institutions and Society as a Whole
12(1)
Participants in the Assessment Process
13(2)
People Who Develop Tests
13(1)
People Who Use Tests
14(1)
People Who Take Tests
14(1)
Other People Involved in the Assessment Process
15(1)
Common Applications of Educational Assessments
15(3)
Student Evaluations
15(1)
Instructional Decisions
16(1)
Selection, Placement, and Classification Decisions
16(1)
Policy Decisions
17(1)
Counseling and Guidance Decisions
18(1)
What Teachers Need to Know about Assessment
18(3)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Selecting Professionally Developed Assessment Procedures Appropriate for Making Instructional Decisions
19(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Developing Assessment Procedures Appropriate for Making Instructional Decisions
19(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Administering, Scoring, and Interpreting Professionally Developed and Teacher-Made Assessment Procedures
20(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Using Assessment Results When Making Educational Decisions
20(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Developing Valid Grading Procedures That Incorporate Assessment Information
20(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Communicating Assessment Results
20(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Recognizing Unethical, Illegal, and Other Inappropriate Uses of Assessment Procedures or Information
21(1)
Educational Assessment in the Twenty-First Century
21(5)
Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) and Other Technological Advances
22(1)
``Authentic'' or Complex-Performance Assessments
22(2)
Educational Accountability and High-Stakes Assessment
24(1)
Trends in the Assessment of Students with Disabilities
24(2)
Summary
26(5)
The Basic Mathematics of Measurement
31(27)
The Role of Mathematics in Assessment
31(1)
Scales of Measurement
32(4)
What Is Measurement?
32(1)
Nominal Scales
33(1)
Ordinal Scales
33(1)
Interval Scales
34(1)
Ratio Scales
34(2)
The Description of Test Scores
36(13)
Distributions
36(4)
Measures of Central Tendency
40(3)
Measures of Variability
43(6)
Correlation Coefficients
49(6)
Scatterplots
50(2)
Correlation and Prediction
52(1)
Types of Correlation Coefficients
52(1)
Correlation versus Causality
52(3)
Summary
55(3)
The Meaning of Test Scores
58(27)
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Score Interpretations
59(20)
Norm-Referenced Interpretations
60(16)
Criterion-Referenced Interpretations
76(3)
Norm-Referenced, Criterion-Referenced, or Both?
79(2)
Qualitative Description of Scores
81(1)
Summary
82(3)
Reliability for Teachers
85(32)
Errors of Measurement
86(4)
Sources of Measurement Error
87(3)
Methods of Estimating Reliability
90(16)
Test--Retest Reliability
92(1)
Alternate-Form Reliability
93(1)
Internal-Consistency Reliability
93(4)
Inter-rater Reliability
97(2)
Reliability of Composite Scores
99(1)
Selecting a Reliability Coefficient
99(2)
Evaluating Reliability Coefficients
101(2)
How to Improve Reliability
103(2)
Special Problems in Estimating Reliability
105(1)
The Standard Error of Measurement
106(5)
Evaluating the Standard Error of Measurement
108(3)
Reliability: Practical Strategies for Teachers
111(3)
Summary
114(3)
Validity for Teachers
117(24)
Threats to Validity
118(1)
Reliability and Validity
119(1)
``Types of Validity'' versus ``Types of Validity Evidence''
120(3)
Types of Validity Evidence
123(14)
Evidence Based on Test Content
123(3)
Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables
126(7)
Evidence Based on Internal Structure
133(1)
Evidence Based on Response Processes
134(1)
Evidence Based on Consequences of Testing
134(1)
Integrating Evidence of Validity
135(2)
Validity: Practical Strategies for Teachers
137(1)
Summary
138(3)
Item Analysis for Teachers
141(22)
Item Difficulty Index (or Item Difficulty Level)
142(2)
Special Assessment Situations and Item Difficulty
144(1)
Item Discrimination
144(7)
Discrimination Index
145(2)
Item-Total Correlation Coefficients
147(2)
Item Discrimination on Mastery Tests
149(1)
Item Analysis of Speed Tests
150(1)
Distracter Analysis
151(2)
How Distracters Influence Item Difficulty and Discrimination
152(1)
Item Analysis: Practical Strategies for Teachers
153(2)
Using Item Analysis to Improve Items
155(2)
Item Analysis of Performance Assessments
157(1)
Qualitative Item Analysis
158(1)
Using Item Analysis to Improve Classroom Instruction
159(2)
Summary
161(2)
The Initial Steps in Developing a Classroom Test
163(25)
Characteristics of Educational Objectives
165(1)
Scope
165(1)
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
166(5)
Cognitive Domain
166(3)
Affective Domain
169(1)
Psychomotor Domain
170(1)
Behavioral versus Nonbehavioral Educational Objectives
171(1)
Writing Educational Objectives
172(1)
Developing a Table of Specifications (or Test Blueprint)
173(2)
Implementing the Table of Specifications and Developing an Assessment
175(8)
Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Score Interpretations
176(1)
Selecting Which Types of Items to Use
176(4)
Putting the Assessment Together
180(3)
Preparing Your Students and Administering the Assessment
183(2)
Summary
185(3)
The Development and Use of Selected-Response Items
188(27)
Multiple-Choice Items
189(15)
Guidelines for Developing Multiple-Choice Items
190(9)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Multiple-Choice Items
199(5)
True-False Items
204(4)
Guidelines for Developing True-False Items
205(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of True-False Items
206(2)
Matching Items
208(5)
Guidelines for Developing Matching Items
209(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Matching Items
211(2)
Summary
213(2)
The Development and Use of Constructed-Response Items
215(23)
Oral Testing: The Oral Essay as a Precursor of Constructed-Response Items
216(1)
Essay Items
217(13)
Purposes of Essay Items
217(2)
Essay Items at Different Levels of Complexity
219(2)
Restricted-Response versus Extended-Response Essays
221(1)
Guidelines for Developing Essay Items
222(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Essay Items
223(3)
Guidelines for Scoring Essay Items
226(4)
Short-Answer Items
230(5)
Guidelines for Developing Short-Answer Items
232(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Short-Answer Items
234(1)
A Final Note: Constructed-Response versus Selected-Response Items
235(1)
Summary
236(2)
Performance Assessments and Portfolios
238(32)
What Are Performance Assessments?
239(6)
Guidelines for Developing Effective Performance Assessments
245(13)
Selecting Appropriate Performance Tasks
245(4)
Developing Instructions
249(1)
Developing Procedures for Evaluating Responses
249(5)
Implementing Procedures to Minimize Errors in Rating
254(4)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Performance Assessments
258(4)
Portfolios
262(4)
Guidelines for Developing Portfolio Assessments
262(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Portfolio Assessments
264(2)
Summary
266(4)
Assigning Grades on the Basis of Classroom Assessments
270(21)
Feedback and Evaluation
271(4)
Formal and Informal Evaluation
274(1)
The Use of Formative Evaluation in Summative Evaluation
274(1)
Reporting Student Progress: Which Symbols to Use?
275(2)
The Basis for Assigning Grades
277(1)
Frame of Reference
278(5)
Norm-Referenced Grading (Relative Grading)
278(2)
Criterion-Referenced Grading (Absolute Grading)
280(1)
Achievement in Relation to Improvement or Effort
281(1)
Achievement Relative to Ability
282(1)
Recommendation
282(1)
Combining Grades into a Composite
283(5)
Informing Students of Grading System
288(1)
Parent Conferences
288(1)
Summary
289(2)
Standardized Achievement Tests in the Era of High-Stakes Assessment
291(29)
Group-Administered Achievement Tests
294(21)
Commercially Developed Group Achievement Tests
295(9)
State-Developed Achievement Tests
304(2)
Best Practices in Using Standardized Achievement Tests in Schools
306(9)
Individual Achievement Tests
315(2)
Selecting an Achievement Battery
317(1)
Summary
318(2)
The Use of Aptitude Tests in the Schools
320(27)
A Brief History of Intelligence Tests
323(3)
The Use of Aptitude and Intelligence Tests in Schools
326(3)
Aptitude-Achievement Discrepancies
327(2)
Major Aptitude/Intelligence Tests
329(14)
Group Aptitude/Intelligence Tests
329(5)
Individual Aptitude/Intelligence Tests
334(8)
Selecting Aptitude/Intelligence Tests
342(1)
College Admission Tests
343(1)
Summary
344(3)
Assessment of Behavior and Personality
347(24)
Assessing Behavior and Personality
349(3)
Response Sets
349(1)
Assessment of Behavior and Personality in the Schools
350(2)
Behavior Rating Scales
352(8)
Behavior Assessment System for Children---Teacher Rating Scale and Parent Rating Scale (TRS and PRS)
353(4)
Conners Rating Scales---Revised (CRS-R)
357(1)
Child Behavior Checklist and Teacher Report Form (CBCL and TRF)
358(2)
Self-Report Measures
360(4)
Behavior Assessment System for Children---Self-Report of Personality (SRP)
360(4)
Youth Self-Report (YSR)
364(1)
Projective Techniques
364(5)
Projective Drawings
366(1)
Sentence Completion Tests
367(1)
Apperception Tests
367(1)
Inkblot Techniques
367(2)
Summary
369(2)
Assessment Accommodations for Students with Disabilities
371(24)
Major Legislation That Impacts the Assessment of Students with Disabilities
373(1)
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
373(5)
IDEA Categories of Disabilities
375(3)
Section 504
378(1)
The Rationale for Assessment Accommodations
379(1)
When Are Accommodations Not Appropriate or Necessary?
380(1)
Strategies for Accommodations
380(5)
Modifications of Presentation Format
381(1)
Modifications of Response Format
381(2)
Modifications of Timing
383(1)
Modification of Setting
383(1)
Adaptive Devices and Supports
383(1)
Using Only a Portion of a Test
384(1)
Using Alternate Assessments
385(1)
Determining What Accommodations to Provide
385(2)
Reporting Results of Modified Assessments
387(3)
Summary
390(5)
The Problem of Bias in Educational Assessment
395(27)
What Do We Mean by Bias?
398(1)
Past and Present Concerns: A Brief Look
399(1)
The Controversy over Bias in Testing: Its Origin, What It Is, and What It Is Not
399(6)
Cultural Bias and the Nature of Psychological Testing
405(1)
Objections to the Use of Educational and Psychological Tests with Minority Students
406(2)
Inappropriate Content
406(1)
Inappropriate Standardization Samples
407(1)
Examiner and Language Bias
407(1)
Inequitable Social Consequences
407(1)
Measurement of Different Constructs
407(1)
Differential Predictive Validity
407(1)
Qualitatively Distinct Aptitude and Personality
407(1)
The Problem of Definition in Test Bias Research: Differential Validity
408(1)
Cultural Loading, Cultural Bias, and Culture-Free Tests
408(1)
Inappropriate Indicators of Bias: Mean Differences and Equivalent Distributions
409(1)
Bias in Test Content
410(3)
Bias in Other Internal Features of Tests
413(2)
Bias in Prediction and in Relation to Variables External to the Test
415(5)
Summary
420(2)
Best Practices in Educational Assessment
422(19)
Guidelines for Developing Assessments
424(1)
Guidelines for Selecting Published Assessments
425(4)
Guidelines for Administering Assessments
429(3)
Guidelines for Scoring Assessments
432(2)
Guidelines for Interpreting, Using, and Communicating Assessment Results
434(1)
Responsibilities of Test Takers
435(2)
Summary
437(4)
Appendix A: Summary Statements of The Student Evaluation Standards (JCSEE, 2003) 441(3)
Appendix B: Code of Professional Responsibilities in Educational Measurement (NCME, 1995) 444(8)
Appendix C: Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education (JCTP, 1988) 452(4)
Appendix D: Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers: Guidelines and Expectations (JCTP, 1998) 456(9)
Appendix E: Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students (AFT, NCME, and NEA, 1990) 465(6)
Appendix F: Proportions of Area under the Normal Curve 471(4)
Appendix G: Answers to Practice Problems 475(2)
References 477(6)
Index 483

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