Methods in Ecosystem Science

by Sala, Osvaldo E.; Jackson, Robert B.; Mooney, Harold A.; Howarth, Robert W.; Odum, E. P.

ISBN13: 9780387987439

ISBN10: 0387987436

Format: Paperback

Pub. Date: 2000-09-01

Publisher(s): Springer Nature

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Summary

Ecology at the ecosystem level has both necessitated and benefited from new methods and technologies as well as those adapted from other disciplines. With the ascendancy of ecosystem science and management, the need has arisen for a comprehensive treatment of techniques used in this rapidly-growing field. Methods in Ecosystem Scienceanswers that need by synthesizing the advantages, disadvantages and tradeoffs associated with the most commonly used techniques in both aquatic and terrestrial research. The book is divided into sections addressing carbon and energy dynamics, nutrient and water dynamics, manipulative ecosystem experiements and tools to synthesize our understanding of ecosystems. Detailed information about various methods will help researchers choose the most appropriate methods for their particular studies. Prominent scientists discuss how tools from a variety of disciplines can be used in ecosystem science at different scales.

Foreword

Acknowledgments

vii

Contributors

xix

Introduction. Methods in Ecosystem Science: Progress, Tradeoffs, and Limitations

(2)

Osvaldo E. Sala

Robert B. Jackson

Harold A. Mooney

Robert W. Howarth

References

(2)

Part 1. Carbon and Energy Dynamics

(154)

Stand Structure in Terrestrial Ecosystems

(24)

Frank W. Davis

Dar Roberts

Introduction

(1)

Methodological Approaches

(1)

Models of Canopy Architecture

(3)

Remote Sensing Instrumentation for Indirect Methods

(7)

Portable Ground Instruments

(1)

Aerial Remote Sensing

(6)

Approaches for Estimating Stand Structure

(7)

Canopy Height

(1)

Vertical Foliar Distribution

(2)

Stand Density

(1)

Cover and Leaf Area

(1)

Biomass

(1)

Three-Dimensional Structure

(1)

References

(6)

Methods of Estimating Aboveground Net Primary Productivity

(13)

Osvaldo E. Sala

Amy T. Austin

Introduction

(2)

Methods to Estimate ANPP in Fast Turnover Ecosystems

(3)

Estimates of Aboveground Biomass

(1)

Methods to Estimate ANPP in Slow Turnover Ecosystems

(1)

Errors Associated with Estimates of ANPP

(4)

Optimal Methodology to Estimate ANPP

(1)

Summary

(1)

References

(2)

Global Terrestrial Gross and Net Primary Productivity from the Earth Observing System

(14)

Steven W. Running

Peter E. Thornton

Ramakrishna Nemani

Joseph M. Glassy

Introduction

(1)

Theoretical Basis for the Algorithm for Global NPP

(6)

Relating NPP and APAR

(1)

Relating APAR and NDVI

(1)

Biophysical Variability of ε

(1)

Parameterization of ε with Global BIOME-BGC Simulations

(4)

Algorithm Implementation Logic in EOS

(3)

Satellite-Derived Input Variables

(1)

Final NPP Algorithm

(2)

Validation of Global NPP

(2)

Summary

(1)

References

(3)

Methods of Estimating Belowground Net Primary Production

(14)

William K. Lauenroth

Introduction

(1)

Concepts

(1)

Methods

(6)

Biomass

(1)

Ingrowth Cores

(1)

Isotopes

(1)

Carbon Balance

(1)

Nitrogen Balance

(1)

Minirhizotrons

(2)

Uncertainty in Estimates of BNPP

(4)

Summary

(1)

References

(3)

The Measurement of Primary Production in Aquatic Ecosystems

(14)

Robert W. Howarth

Anthony F. Michaels

Introduction

(2)

Light and Dark Bottle Oxygen Technique

(1)

Carbon-14 Technique

(2)

Problems and Challenges with Light and Dark Bottle and Carbon-14 Techniques

(2)

In Situ Diel Approaches

(3)

Remote Sensing Techniques

(1)

References

(4)

Benthic Respiration in Aquatic Sediments

(18)

Bo Thamdrup

Donald E. Canfield

Introduction

(2)

Total Benthic Mineralization, Flux Measurements

(1)

Other Total Mineralization Assays

(1)

Respiratory Pathways, Oxygen Respiration

(1)

Nitrate Reduction

(1)

Manganese and Iron Reduction

(3)

Sulfate Reduction

(1)

Methanogenesis

(1)

Conclusions

(1)

References

(7)

Decomposition and Soil Organic Matter Dynamics

104

(13)

G. Philip Robertson

Eldor A. Paul

Introduction

104

(2)

Plant Litter Decomposition

106

(4)

Fine Litter Decomposition Rates

106

(3)

Woody Detritus

109

(1)

Reciprocal Transplants and Standard Substrates

109

(1)

Soil Organic Matter Dynamics

110

(3)

Soil Organic Matter Stores

110

(1)

Physical Fractionation of Soil Organic Matter

110

(1)

Biological Soil Organic Matter Fractions

111

(2)

Use of Tracers

113

(1)

References

113

(4)

Stable Isotope Tracers and Mathematical Models in Soil Organic Matter Studies

117

(21)

Ronald Amundson

W. Troy Baisden

Introduction

117

(1)

Soil Organic Matter Pools and Dynamics

117

(2)

SOM Pools

117

(1)

SOM Additions

118

(1)

SOM Losses

118

(1)

Internal SOM Transfers

119

(1)

SOM Transformations

119

(1)

Stable Carbon Isotopes in Organic Matter

119

(9)

Well-Mixed One Box Model of C Isotopes in SOM

119

(3)

Uses of Well-Mixed Box Models in SOM C Studies

122

(1)

Models for Vertical Variations in the δ13C Value of SOM

123

(5)

Stable Nitrogen Isotopes in Organic Matter

128

(6)

Well-Mixed One Box Soil Ecosystem Model of N Isotopes

129

(3)

Use of N Isotopes in SOM as a Tracer

132

(1)

Model of Vertical Variations in δ15N Value of SOM

132

(2)

Conclusions

134

(1)

References

134

(4)

Microbial Carbon Cycling in Pelagic Ecosystems: Microbial Methods for Ecosystem Scientists

138

(13)

Jonathan J. Cole

Introduction

138

(1)

Abundance and Biomass

139

(4)

Epifluorescent Direct Count

140

(1)

Sample Preservation

141

(1)

Count by Flow Cytometry

141

(1)

Active and Inactive Cells

141

(1)

Cell Size and Biomass

142

(1)

Growth and Respiration of Planktonic Bacteria

143

(3)

Bacterial Secondary Production

143

(1)

Bacterial Respiration

144

(1)

Uptake and Turnover of Specific Substrates

144

(1)

Substrates Supporting Bacterial Growth

144

(2)

Conclusions

146

(1)

References

147

(4)

Herbivory in Terrestrial Ecosystems

151

(8)

Martin Oesterheld

Samuel J. McNaughton

Introduction

151

(1)

Consumption

151

(3)

Animal-Based Methods

151

(1)

Plant-Based Methods

152

(2)

Differential Use of the Two Approaches

154

(1)

Effect of Herbivores on Primary Production

154

(2)

Compensatory Growth

154

(1)

Approaches

155

(1)

References

156

(3)

Part 2. Nutrient and Water Dynamics

159

(130)

Canopy Fluxes

161

(20)

John B. Moncrieff

Paul G. Jarvis

Ricardo Valentini

Introduction

161

(1)

The Canopy Scale

161

(5)

The Surface Boundary Layer

161

(2)

Net Ecosystem Exchange

163

(1)

Flux Footprint

164

(2)

Methodologies

166

(8)

Aerodynamic Method

167

(1)

Energy Balance/Bowen Ratio

167

(1)

Eddy Covariance

168

(6)

Conditional Sampling

174

(1)

Errors in Long-Term Measurements of Fluxes of Carbon and Water

174

(1)

Related Techniques

175

(2)

Conclusions

177

(1)

References

177

(4)

Assessing Ecosystem-Level Water Relations Through Stable Isotope Ratio Analyses

181

(18)

James R. Ehleringer

John Roden

Todd E. Dawson

Introduction

181

(1)

Stable Isotopes: Natural Abundances and δ Notation

181

(1)

Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry

181

(2)

Meteoric Water Line

183

(1)

Evaporative Enrichment

183

(1)

Methods for Water Sampling, Extraction, and Analysis

184

(2)

Water Sample Collection and Storage

184

(1)

Soil, Leaf, and Stem Water Extraction

185

(1)

δD Analysis of Water

185

(1)

δ18O Analysis of Water

186

(1)

Methods for Leaf and Stem Organic Matter Sampling, Extraction, and Analysis

186

(3)

Total Tissue Versus Cellulose Analysis

186

(1)

Leaf Sampling Considerations

187

(1)

Tree Ring Separation and Cellulose Purification

187

(1)

δ13C Analysis of Organic Matter

188

(1)

δD Analysis of Organic Matter

189

(1)

δ18O Analysis of Organic Matter

189

(1)

Short-Term, Ecosystem Process-Level Applications

189

(4)

Partitioning of Water Resources Among Plants Within Ecosystems

189

(2)

Using δD and δ18O Water Pulses and Interpretation of Mixing Models

191

(1)

Water-Use Efficiency

192

(1)

Short-Term, Regional Process-Level Applications Across Ecosystems

193

(1)

Recycling of Water Among and Between Ecosystems

193

(1)

δ18O of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

193

(1)

Long-Term, Temporal Scaling of Ecosystem Processes

193

(1)

Decadal-to-Century: Tree Rings

193

(1)

Millennial: Caliche

194

(1)

Animals

194

(1)

Short-Term Indicators of Water Source

194

(1)

Long-Term Indicators of Water Source

194

(1)

References

195

(4)

Measuring Water Availability and Uptake in Ecosystem Studies

199

(16)

Robert B. Jackson

Laurel J. Anderson

William T. Pockman

Introduction

199

(1)

Theory and Currencies for Measuring Water in the Environment

199

(2)

Methods for Estimating Plant and Soil Moisture

201

(6)

Gravimetric Measurements of θm and θv

201

(1)

Techniques for Direct Measurement of ψ

202

(2)

Time Domain Reflectometry

204

(2)

Remotely Sensed Data Using Microwave Radiometers

206

(1)

Estimating the Vegetative Component of Ecosystem Water Fluxes

207

(3)

Sap Flow Measurements

208

(1)

Whole Root/Shoot Hydraulic Conductance

209

(1)

Summary

210

(1)

References

211

(4)

Nutrient Transformations

215

(20)

John M. Stark

Introduction

215

(2)

Non-Isotope Methods

217

(6)

Net Rate Measurements with Inhibitors

217

(4)

Rate Measurements Obtained from Nutrient Budgets

221

(1)

Net Rate Measurements with ``Super Sinks''

221

(1)

Rate Measurements Using Substrate Analogs

222

(1)

Isotope Methods

223

(8)

Tracer Measurements

223

(1)

Isotope Dilution Measurements

224

(5)

Estimation of Rates by Modeling Methods

229

(1)

Natural Abundance Isotope Methods

230

(1)

Application of Methods to Other Nutrient Transformations

231

(1)

References

231

(4)

Biogenic Trace Gas Exchanges

235

(14)

Pamela Matson

Allen Goldstein

Approaches for Estimation of Fluxes

235

(7)

Enclosure Methods

236

(6)

Micrometeorological Approaches

242

(1)

Analytical Methods for Trace Gases

242

(2)

Multiple Approaches for Understanding and Estimating Fluxes

244

(1)

References

244

(5)

Ecosystem Nutrient Balance and Dynamics

249

(16)

Kate Lajtha

Introduction

249

(1)

Input--Output Ecosystem Budgets at the Watershed Scale

250

(3)

Atmospheric Inputs

251

(1)

Stream Outputs

252

(1)

Other Budget Approaches

253

(5)

Stand-Level Budgets Using Lysimetry

253

(3)

Monolith Lysimetry and Sandbox Experiments

256

(2)

Nitrogen-15 Studies at the Ecosystem Scale

258

(1)

References

259

(6)

Deposition of Nutrients and Pollutants to Ecosystems

265

(12)

Lars O. Hedin

Role of Atmospheric Deposition

265

(1)

Vectors of Delivery

266

(1)

Scales of Inquiry

266

(1)

Wet Deposition

267

(1)

Dry Deposition

268

(2)

Cloud Deposition

270

(1)

Mass-Balance Techniques

271

(1)

Stable Isotope and Other Tracer Techniques

272

(1)

Summary and Prospects

273

(1)

References

274

(3)

Landscape and Regional Biogeochemistry: Approaches

277

(12)

Ingrid C. Burke

Introduction

277

(1)

Pattern Analysis: Design for Field Studies

278

(2)

Stratified Sampling and Discrete Units

278

(1)

Sampling Continuous Variation

279

(1)

Spatially Explicit Analyses

280

(2)

Field Analyses

280

(1)

Modeling Movement

281

(1)

Extrapolating to the Regional or Landscape Scale

282

(1)

Field Analysis

282

(1)

Modeling

283

(1)

Summary

283

(1)

References

284

(5)

Part 3. Manipulative Ecosystem Experiments

289

(82)

Nutrient Manipulations in Terrestrial Ecosystems

291

(17)

Valerie T. Eviner

F. Stuart Chapin III

Charles E. Vaughn

Introduction

291

(1)

Ecological Questions Addressed by Nutrient Addition

291

(1)

Nature of Nutrient Limitation

292

(1)

Commonly Limiting Nutrients

293

(1)

Single Versus Multiple Nutrient Limitation

293

(1)

Experimental Design

293

(7)

General Approach

293

(1)

Experimental Setup

294

(1)

Experimental Design

294

(1)

Time Scale of Response

295

(1)

Addition Rates

295

(1)

How to Add?

295

(1)

Form of Nutrients Added

296

(1)

Nitrogen

296

(2)

Phosphorus

298

(1)

Potassium

299

(1)

Sulfur

299

(1)

Isotopes

300

(2)

Alternatives to Nutrient Addition Experiments

302

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

303

(1)

References

303

(5)

Biotic Manipulation of Aquatic Ecosystems

308

(10)

Daniel E. Schindler

Brian R. Herwig

Stephen R. Carpenter

Introduction

308

(1)

Manipulation of Species

308

(2)

Species Removals

308

(1)

Species Introductions

309

(1)

Habitat Manipulations

310

(1)

Macrophyte Restoration and Removal in Lakes

310

(1)

Restoration of Other Structural Features

311

(1)

Wetland Restoration

311

(1)

Simulation Modeling, Manipulation Strength, and Statistical Power

311

(2)

Future Prospects

313

(2)

Field Guide to Keystones

313

(1)

Humans and Ecosystems

313

(1)

Adaptive Management

314

(1)

References

315

(3)

Biotic Manipulations Involving Belowground Animals

318

(12)

Diana H. Wall

O. James Reichman

Introduction

318

(1)

Soil Biota

318

(2)

Exclusions as Biotic Manipulations

320

(2)

Physical Exclusion Methods

320

(1)

Chemical Exclusions

321

(1)

Natural Gradients as Treatments

322

(1)

Habitat Manipulations

323

(1)

Physical Alteration

323

(1)

Introductions and Transplants

323

(1)

Resource Manipulations

324

(1)

Laboratory Studies

324

(1)

Summary

325

(1)

References

325

(5)

Assessing the Effects of Acidification on Aquatic Ecosystems: Insights from Lake Experiments

330

(11)

Thomas M. Frost

Janet M. Fischer

Introduction

330

(1)

The Chemistry of Acidification

331

(1)

What Controls the Anthropogenic Acidification of Aquatic Ecosystems?

331

(1)

Ecological Consequences of Acidification

332

(1)

Smaller-Scale Experiments to Evaluate the Effects of Acidification

332

(2)

Large-Scale Experiments to Evaluate the Effects of Acidification

334

(4)

References

338

(3)

Large-Scale Water Manipulations

341

(12)

Paul J. Hanson

Introduction

341

(1)

Active Versus Passive Manipulations

342

(1)

Artificial Rainfall

343

(1)

Throughfall Interception

344

(1)

Verification of Water Treatments

345

(3)

Measurement Approaches

345

(1)

Dealing with Spatial Variation

346

(2)

Collection of Adequate Weather Data

348

(1)

Confounding Issues

348

(1)

Plot Size and Edge Effects

348

(1)

Statistical Replication

349

(1)

Conclusions

349

(1)

References

350

(3)

Ecosystem Climate Manipulations

353

(18)

Karin P. Shen

John Harte

Introduction

353

(1)

Global Climate Change and Ecosystems

353

(2)

Methods of Ecosystem Climate Manipulation

355

(9)

Laboratory Methods: Growth Chambers

355

(1)

Field Manipulations: General Considerations

356

(1)

Field Manipulations: Warming Experiments

357

(5)

Field Methods: Other Climate Variables

362

(1)

Field Methods: Enhancing UV-B Radiation

363

(1)

General Recommendations

364

(1)

References

365

(6)

Part 4. Synthesis and Conclusions

371

(36)

Ecosystem Modeling

373

(16)

Herman H. Shugart

Introduction

373

(1)

Lexical Phase

373

(1)

Parsing Phase

374

(1)

Modeling Phase

375

(6)

A Simple Population Model

376

(1)

Compartment Models and Material Flow

376

(2)

Formulation of Compartment Models for Ecosystem Studies

378

(3)

Analysis Phase

381

(2)

Model Validation

381

(1)

Sensitivity Analysis

381

(2)

Stability Analysis

383

(1)

Future Directions: Multiple Commodity Models and Individual-Based Models

383

(3)

Multiple Commodity Models

383

(2)

Individual-Based Models

385

(1)

Conclusions

386

(1)

References

386

(3)

Stoichiometric Analysis of Pelagic Ecosystems: The Biogeochemistry of Planktonic Food Webs

389

(18)

James J. Elser

Introduction

389

(1)

Biogeochemical Structure of Planktonic Food Webs

390

(7)

Dynamics Under Stoichiometric Constraints: The Andersen Model

397

(3)

What About the Microbes?

400

(1)

Methodological Issues

401

(1)

Applications

402

(1)

Implications

403

(1)

References

404

(3)

Index

407

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